Rabindranath
Tagore, the ardent defender of public liberty once made a grievous mistake of
accepting the invitation of the fascist dictator Mussolini. This incident gave
rise to an international backlash which caused repercussions, especially
amongst the left-wing press in Europe. In the end, Tagore had to diffuse the
situation by writing a long letter to Charles Andrews explaining in detail the
background of his invitation. The letter was published in The Manchester
Guardian on 5 August 1926. A re-edited version of the letter, in
translation, was subsequently published in several papers in the European
Press. However, it took some time to clear the misunderstandings surrounding
Tagore’s visit to Mussolini’s Italy. This piece briefly describes the story of
an imperfect encounter between two personalities whose ideologies and beliefs
were worlds apart.
Tagore
visited Italy twice in his life time, once in 1925 and again a year later in
1926, though he passed through the country several times before and during his
visits to England.
It
was on his second visit to Italy, that he met Mussolini twice.
Political
backdrop of Italy in the 1920s
Before
October 1922, the year when Mussolini came into power, there was political
turmoil in Italy and Luigi Facta, the Prime Minister, failed to deal with
Mussolini’s insurgency. The economy was unstable and there was an alarming
growth of public disorder especially with the rise of crime and murder. The
parliamentary system failed to tackle the crisis. Although the Socialists were
one of the most dominating political forces in the country, the intelligentsia
failed to accept them as a ruling party. With such chaos in place, Mussolini
was able to come into power. After his famous march in Rome in October 1922,
King Vittorio Emmanule, with no other alternatives, asked Mussolini and his
National Fascist Party to form the Government.
Mussolini
quickly took charge of the situation, using his private army the Blackshirts,
who ruthlessly controlled all who opposed Mussolini. Freedom of press was
subsequently abolished and overnight all papers were forced to convert into
fascist press.
In
1924, Mussolini and his militia used violence, propaganda, and vote-rigging to
win his first election with an absolute majority. Some of the socialist leaders
such as Amendola and Matteotti challenged the election. As a result, they were
eventually assassinated by the Blackshirts. A mass persecution took place and
many intellectuals namely Profs Salvadori and Salvemini; conductor Toscanini;
Angelica Balabanoff, an expert of European socialism; and many others fled from
the country and took refuge elsewhere in Europe.
The
appalling treatment of these socialists, especially the assassination of
Matteotti and Amendola had a detrimental effect on Mussolini’s image in the
rest of the world. Adverse criticism found its way in some socialists papers
published in France. One thing Mussolini knew from the very beginning was that
to enhance his prestige at home his international image must be upheld and
without a strong foreign policy and the right kind of propaganda that image
could not be achieved. He often invited the foreign press, dignitaries and
cultural delegations to publicise and demonstrate the positive successes of his
regime and divert the international attention away from the Matteotti incident.
Against
this political backdrop Tagore came to Italy in 1925 to begin his first tour on
his voyage back from Argentina.
First
Italian tour, 1925
Tagore’s
official invitation for his first visit came from the non-governmental academic
body, The Philological Society of Milan. In addition, he was supposed to visit
Florence and Turin as the original tour was scheduled for 25 days. But he had
to cut short his tour as he became ill. The Italian medical team did not take
any chances advising Tagore to return to India. His proposed tour in Florence
and Turin were cancelled. Eventually he went to Brindisi, via a short detour in
Venice, to embark on the liner heading back to India.
Tagore’s
ill health caused some embarrassment for his tour organisers. Tagore himself
also felt embarrassed as he was overwhelmed by the warm reception given to him
by the people of Milan and Venice. Keen to return and visit more of Italy, he
expressed his intention of coming back when his health would allow him to
travel. He conveyed this message in a poem which was translated into Italian
and published in the Italian press before he left.
In
Milan Tagore met Prof. Formichi, a distinguished Sanskrit scholar and an
Indologist of Rome University. Formichi was also the lead person that organised
the Poet’s tour with The Philological Society and later on, was the interpreter
throughout Tagore’s visit. Before leaving Milan, Tagore invited Formichi to
join Visvabharati as a visiting professor at his university’s expense and
requested that he find enough funds to set up an exchange programme for an
Italian scholar that, in addition, would bring Italian books on literature and
art. Prof. Formichi accepted the invitation.
Tagore
did not tour Rome so was unable to meet Mussolini in 1925, although Mussolini
himself was aware of Tagore’s presence in Milan.
Second
Italian tour, 1926
Prof.
Formichi received the official appointment letter from Visvabharati in July
1925. He was both delighted and apprehensive as he was unable to source funding
for an Italian scholar for the proposed exchange programme. Furthermore, he was
unable to purchase the Italian books he promised Tagore. The situation was a
little embarrassing for Formichi as he was aware that other European visiting
professors who preceded him donated substantial amounts of resources to
Tagore’s University. Being desperate for funds and finding no other
alternatives he ultimately wrote a letter directly to Mussolini explaining
everything and requesting support.
Until
that point, Mussolini had no issues or policies towards India. His only
reference to India was found in an article published in Il Popolo d’Italia
where he predicted the Mophla rebellion would be the end of British rule in
India. In fact, during the mid-twenties, the situation in India became
favourable with fascist propagandists; for a few years the above article by
Mussolini was the only commentary on India available in Italy.
However,
when Formichi’s letter arrived at his desk for his personal attention,
immediately a sinister plan was triggered in his mind. He became seriously
interested in Tagore. Perhaps he assumed that any positive remarks and praise
by Tagore, a symbol of peace and human liberty with towering international fame
and respect (at least during that period), for his fascist regime would be
highly valued by the outside world.
Suddenly
Tagore became a big catch to Mussolini, and there were other advantages. Tagore
did not know the language and was not much aware of Italian politics. So when
Formichi’s application came to his desk for his personal attention, Mussolini
generously approved the application. Mussolini was confident his approval would
act as bait and Tagore was bound to be hooked.
Prof.
Formichi’s worries were over. He joined Visvabharati in November 1925 and
brought with him the entire library of Italian classics, and the service of
Prof. Tucci, another distinguished scholar of Indology for a year all paid for
by the Italian government.
Tagore
was overwhelmed at Mussolini’s gesture and immediately cabled Mussolini
expressing his gratitude. He wrote:
“…I
assure you that such expression of sympathy, coming as it does from the
representative of the Italian people, will open a channel of communication of
cultural relations between your country and ours, which has every possibility
to produce and event of great historical relevance.
Tagore
wanted to show his gratitude personally by going to Rome and asking Prof.
Formichi to arrange his trip. A second visit was due in any case as Tagore
wanted to keep the promise he made on his first visit. Prof. Formichi informed
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the poet’s intention of visiting Italy
again. Now, Mussolini’s plan was off the ground. The Government extended their hospitality
directly.
Tagore
arrived in Rome on 30 May 1926. The following day, accompanying Prof. Formichi,
he went to meet Mussolini at his office in Palazzo Chigi. For the very first
time the Poet and the Dictator came face to face.
In
his opening conversation Mussolini said, “I am one of those many Italians that
have read all your books; of course those that have been translated in our
language.”
Tagore
was visibly moved by this statement. He thanked Mussolini for the generous gift
and for the services of Prof. Tucci at Visvabharati. Mussolini then enquired
how long the poet intended to stay in Rome.
Learning
it was the Poet’s intention to visit Florence the following week, Mussolini
insisted him to stay at least a fortnight in Rome, to take complete rest and to
enjoy some sight-seeing. Tagore expressed his gratitude further and during
their extended dialogue mentioned that he had not yet decided the subject of
his public lecture. Mussolini immediately insisted: “speak on art, speak on
art.”
In
this context, Mussolini’s biographer wrote, “He liked to stress the great
importance of art and he himself, inevitably, was claimed to be a seminal
influence upon contemporary artists; but in private he was ready to confess
that he did not understand pictures and inwardly he resented that Italy had
been held back from political greatness by the illusory and corrupting pursuit
of aesthetic values.
The
conversation was extremely cordial and lasted for half an hour. Prof. Formichi
was translating Mussolini’s words into English but not Tagore’s words into
Italian as Mussolini could understand English when spoken slowly.
At
the end the Prime Minister said, “Just let me know what you would like to do
best and I shall be more than happy to arrange it for you.”
On
his way back to the hotel when Formichi asked Tagore about his first
impressions of Mussolini, Tagore replied, “Without any doubt he is a great
personality. There is such a massive vigour in that head that it reminds one of
Michael Angelo’s chisel. Moreover, there is a simplicity in the man which makes
it hard to believe that he is really the cruel tyrant many indulge in
depicting. Parts of this statement was reported in the
press.
Again
Mussolini’s biographer wrote : “…His personal magnetism worked best with those
who saw him rarely; nevertheless he could always impress a visitor when he
tried and all the fascist leaders remembered how they had at times fallen under
a real spell… and Tagore was no exception.
The
above is only a small summary of the first meeting between the two, which was
also highlighted in some of the Italian Press. When a reporter of a well
circulated fascist paper asked the poet to write a few words about the new
Italy, he wrote, “Let me dream that from the fire-bath the immortal soul of
Italy will come out clothed in quenchless light.” This statement was also
quoted in several of the daily papers.
During
the next two weeks (1-13 June 1926) Tagore visited most of Rome’s landmarks,
met with the King, had lunch with the British Ambassador, was received by the
Governor of Rome at the Coliseum, and gave several interviews to newspaper
reporters though some of his quotes were wrongly interpreted in the press and
as Tagore did not know the language, he found no discrepancies in what was
written. He was heartily received at the University of Rome, gave several
lectures of which the most important one was that presented at the Union of
Intellectuals The Meaning of Art, attended by Mussolini himself.
In
the afternoon of his meeting with the British Ambassador Tagore told Formichi,
“As long as Mussolini lives, Italy can be said to be safe. Now I know what I
shall answer when, after crossing the Italian border, I hear people speak ill
of your country. It was an irony that Tagore had to speak
ill of Italy after crossing the border!
Tagore
met Mussolini for the second (and last) time before his departure from Rome on
13 June. This time the meeting was longer and heartier. As usual, Tagore
mentioned his ideas of an East-West fellowship. He said, “Italy possesses a
great personality, and therefore she as a nation most suited to promote a
rapprochement between both the Asian and the European civilisations.” Mussolini
agreed. Tagore also added, “Your Excellency, you are the most slandered man in
the world.” Mussolini, with an innocent face replied, “I know, but what can I
do?”
Then
the Poet expressed his intention to meet the great Italian philosopher Benedetto
Croce. Before Mussolini could respond, Prof. Formichi objected in a louder tone
“Impossible! Impossible!” Mussolini, cunning as ever, immediately stopped him
and asked to arrange the meeting. Next, Mussolini showed Tagore the blueprint
of his plan to build an International City in Rome. Tagore was again highly
impressed and finally he requested of the Duce a signed photograph.
The
meeting was over, though at present there is still no record that this meeting
was mentioned in the Italian press at that time.
The
next day Tagore left Rome for Florence followed by his visit to Turin. On 22
June before leaving the border of Italy the poet sent a cable to Mussolini, “I
take leave with hearty thanks to Your Excellency, and to the Italian people
represented by Your Excellency, for your generous hospitality and kind
sentiments towards me.”
With
that note, Tagore and his party left Italy by train for Switzerland never to
return Italy again!
Post
Italian Tour
In
Switzerland Tagore spent a few days in the company of Romain Rolland at
Villeneuve. There he had a long conversation with Rolland, who was very
critical of the fascist regime in Italy. Rolland tried to give
Tagore a more truthful picture of the growing repression, violence and
atrocities that took place in the fascist state and eventually condemned his
tour.
There
was no doubt that Tagore himself felt a kind of uneasiness, especially during
those latter stages of his Italian tour. But he was so thrilled by his
reception and intrigued by Mussolini, that he was unwilling to believe he had
made any mistake in coming to Italy. Rolland also made Tagore aware of some of
the oblique comments in the European press on his Italian visit. He tried to
bring Tagore out of his ambivalence, stressing the fact that freedom of
expression had been stopped in Italy.
Listening
to Rolland, Tagore found himself with a great dilemma and eventually he agreed
(though under pressure) to publish a write-up in the form of an interview,
deploring some of the facts he did not like in the tour. Rolland brought his
friend Duhamel from Paris, with a view to publicising the interview in the
French press.
But
that arrangement also went wrong. In his article Tagore could not dismiss from
his mind the magnificent reception he received from his Italian host. A
frustrated Rolland and Duhamel finally requested that Tagore not say or write
anything before he heard the truth from those now living in exile.
A
meeting was arranged with Tagore and Prof. Salvadori in Zurich and Modigliani
in Vienna. In Zurich, Prof. Salvadori could not meet the Poet because of his
illness but his wife took his place.
In
her opening conversation, Signora Salvadori asked, “You, who are so good, why
did you come to Italy, now the land of violence and persecution?”
Tagore
explained the background of his tour. At one stage he said, “I had no
opportunities to study the genesis or the activities of the fascist movement
and I did not express any opinion about it. In fact in most of my interviews I
was careful to explain that I was not competent to say anything either for or
against fascism, not having studied it…About Mussolini himself I must, however,
say that he did interest me as an artist…Mussolini struck me as a masterful
personality… The people with whom I came into contact in Italy were almost
unanimous in assuring me that Mussolini had saved Italy from anarchy and utter
ruin. ”
Signora
Salvadori emphasised that, “… It is not true. This is the opinion of people who
are in favour of Fascism … People who hold contrary views were not allowed to
see you … It is not true that Mussolini had saved Italy from financial ruin.
The financial position of Italy was better before Mussolini came into power.
Look at the Lira, it was 70 to the pound, and it is now 130 … Foreigners do not
know, and merely repeat conventional tales. But what makes us unhappy is that
you have unintentionally helped to support Fascism. We know it is
unintentional, for you are too good to do so.
Signora
Salvadori related to the poet only those facts which she had personally
witnessed. The whole conversation lasted for an hour and was later published in
The Manchester Guardian in October 1926. Indeed, he heard similar
stories when he met with Mr Modigliani, the attorney of the Matteoti Trial, and
Angelia Balabanoff in Vienna.
Tagore
was clearly perturbed by what he had heard and developed the same mental
agitation and distress as he had during the Amritsar massacre which took place
in India seven years beforehand.
From
Vienna he wrote a letter to his friend Charles Andrews in India, explaining in
details the background of his Italian tour, how he was trapped by the
interviewers, that he never praised fascism at any stage of his tour but
admitted he praised Mussolini as an artist. The letter was elaborate but courteous,
eventually published in The Manchester Guardian on 5 August 1926.
Prof.
Formichi was taken aback to see the Poet’s sudden change of attitude towards
Italy: he also sent a counter article in the same paper three weeks later
stating his side of the story.
Rolland
did not like the softer tone of Tagore’s letter. However, he selected the
salient points from that letter, re-edited and translated it and distributed it
amongst the European press, thus drawing a close to Tagore’s relationship with
Mussolini’s Italy.
It
was true that Tagore was affected by the strange and captivating illusion of
Mussolini, but that illusion lasted until Mussolini invaded Abyssinia and other
Mediterranean states. Tagore never once praised fascism at any point during his
Italian tour. As Mussolini and fascism are more or less used synonymously, he
was often misquoted in the Italian media.
The
Italian people had a glimmer of Tagore’s letter to Andrews and his interview
two weeks after. The Bologna paper Assalto reported (28 August):
“That
Tagore, who came to Italy twice and inflicted us on his very heavy poetic
lucubration, is an old actor who is worthy of our highest contempt…This guru is
kept by various governments. He is paid so much at each lecture… this viscid,
insinuating individual, who is as honeyed as his words and poems, came to Italy
as he was invited, paid and helped by the government. He exalted Italy,
glorified fascism, and sang the praises of Mussolini… As soon as he crossed the
border, this old man with an unsound soul, who impressed the public with his
long black tunic and his white beard, talked behind the back of Italy, Fascism
and its great leader, who is endlessly greater than him… He approximately
behaved like prostitutes who always swear they are in love with their latest
customer. Today we claim we do not like Tagore as a poet anymore because he is
emasculated and without backbone. He disgusts us as a man because he is false,
dishonest and shameless.
And
with this, Mussolini’s plan to involve Tagore in his political propaganda came
to a crashing end.
Postscript
In
1930 when Tagore came to New York after visiting Russia, he met Prof. Formichi
again. Formichi was then the visiting professor of the Italian Chair at
Barclay. During the course of the conversation, Tagore expressed his intention
to resolve any misunderstandings he had with Mussolini. Formichi suggested the
Poet write a letter to Mussolini directly explaining his account. The Poet made
a draft and instead of sending it to Mussolini directly, sent it to his son in
Santiniketan for his approval. He wrote (21 November 1930):
Your
Excellency
It
often comes to my memory how we were startled by the magnanimous token of your
sympathy reaching us through my very dear friend Prof. Formichi. The precious
gift, the library of Italian literature, is a treasure to us highly prized by
our institution and for which we are deeply grateful to Your Excellency.
I
am also personally indebted to you for the lavish generosity you showed to me
in your hospitality when I was your guest in Italy and I earnestly hope that
the misunderstanding which was unfortunately caused a barrier between me and
the great people you represent, the people for whom I have genuine love, will
not remain permanent, and that this expression of my gratitude to you and your
nation will be accepted. The politics of a country is its own; its culture
belongs to all humanity. My mission is to acknowledge all that has eternal
value in the self-expression of any country.
Your
Excellency has nobly offered to our institution on behalf of Italy the
opportunity of a festival of spirit which will remain inexhaustible and ever
claim our homage of a cordial admiration.
I
am, Your Excellency,
Gratefully
Yours
Rabindranath
Tagore.
Whether
that letter was ever sent to Mussolini is still unknown. However, according to
Mario Prayer, the letter was sent but it was not clear if it ever reached the
hand of the Duce.
Romain Rolland (29 January 1866 – 30 December 1944) was a French dramatist, novelist, essayist, art historian and mystic who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1915 "as a tribute to the lofty idealism of his literary production and to the sympathy and love of truth with which he has described different types of human beings
His first book was published in 1902, when he was 36 years old. Through his advocacy for a 'people's theatre', he made a significant contribution towards the democratization of the theatre. As a humanist, he embraced the work of the philosophers of India ("Conversations with Rabindranath Tagore" and Mohandas Gandhi). Rolland was strongly influenced by the Vedanta philosophy of India, primarily through the works of Swami Vivekananda
